Summary:
The essence of the book revolves around the idea of not only how easy people submit to authority, but also, how they can confirm to evil actions. Stanley Milgram sets up an experiment with a subject, learner, and experimenter. The experimenter informs the subject that he is performing a study on punishment and learning. However, he truly aims at discovering the relationship between obedience and authority. The subject is instructed to shock the learner from 15-450 volts in 15 volt increments as the learner misses questions. In actuality, the learner is an actor and faking the shocks. The results of the experiment reveal that nearly two thirds of participants are willing to shock the victim to 450 volts with little incentive or instruction. On the monitor, it even display 'XXX' at 450 volts.
The results of the study were shocking. Nearly two-thirds of participants went beyond the 'XXX' on the display, up to 450 volts. Milgram and his team even thought they would need to include additional experimental features to make people more obedient, but in fact, the opposite was true. The question then transformed into whether this study assess obedience or the inherent evil within human beings. Although we later find out, through subsequent experiments, that people blindly follow authority, even if it means 'killing' another person.
Milgram wanted to delve further into the human psyche. He uncovered the fact that as the victim is closer in proximity to the subject, obedience was followed less. This demonstrates the power of empathy and also the power of a division of labor in a corrupt organization. The subjects rarely felt responsible for their actions and instead, protested that "they were just doing their job". It should be noted that even in scenarios when the subject had to physically place the learner's hand on an electric plate, substantial obedience still occurred within the lab.
The next portion of the book revolves around Milgram trying to pin point the exact breaking point in which a person submits to authority. Although other factors come into play, such as the authenticity of the lab environment, the number one important factor was the main authority. While two authorities split decision or one authority instructs to shock another authority, the main point boiled down to whether the victim felt submissive to the one authority in the room. It took little power or influence to knock this authority off his throne by such methods of either removing him from the room, or putting him in place as the learner. Thus, it becomes clear that human beings have a tendency to submit themselves when in the presence of a leader who is higher in the hierarchical chain.
Finally, Milgram assess why human nature has a desire to fall under the power of an authority. First, it is more beneficial for the organization to function if they have a leader in place when disaster strikes. However, people have antecedent conditions, such as family or educational institutions, that push them towards a hierarchy. Milgram denotes this state of transforming oneself from autonomy to an agent carrying out other's demands, the agentic state. Lastly, Milgram notes that there must exist some binding factors to keep one immersed in this state. The binding factors must be greater than the stress that is imposed upon an individual while in the agentic state.
In conclusion, Milgram warns readers about the potency of blind following. If a malicious leader takes over control of a hierarchy, he can instill his desires into his subordinates with little effort. This causes detrimental effects of society. Thus, Milgram unfolds a dark side to human nature and wants readers to be aware of its existence. If a person were to always hold the consequences of his actions above that of an authority, devastating tragedies can be avoided in the future.
The results of the study were shocking. Nearly two-thirds of participants went beyond the 'XXX' on the display, up to 450 volts. Milgram and his team even thought they would need to include additional experimental features to make people more obedient, but in fact, the opposite was true. The question then transformed into whether this study assess obedience or the inherent evil within human beings. Although we later find out, through subsequent experiments, that people blindly follow authority, even if it means 'killing' another person.
Milgram wanted to delve further into the human psyche. He uncovered the fact that as the victim is closer in proximity to the subject, obedience was followed less. This demonstrates the power of empathy and also the power of a division of labor in a corrupt organization. The subjects rarely felt responsible for their actions and instead, protested that "they were just doing their job". It should be noted that even in scenarios when the subject had to physically place the learner's hand on an electric plate, substantial obedience still occurred within the lab.
The next portion of the book revolves around Milgram trying to pin point the exact breaking point in which a person submits to authority. Although other factors come into play, such as the authenticity of the lab environment, the number one important factor was the main authority. While two authorities split decision or one authority instructs to shock another authority, the main point boiled down to whether the victim felt submissive to the one authority in the room. It took little power or influence to knock this authority off his throne by such methods of either removing him from the room, or putting him in place as the learner. Thus, it becomes clear that human beings have a tendency to submit themselves when in the presence of a leader who is higher in the hierarchical chain.
Finally, Milgram assess why human nature has a desire to fall under the power of an authority. First, it is more beneficial for the organization to function if they have a leader in place when disaster strikes. However, people have antecedent conditions, such as family or educational institutions, that push them towards a hierarchy. Milgram denotes this state of transforming oneself from autonomy to an agent carrying out other's demands, the agentic state. Lastly, Milgram notes that there must exist some binding factors to keep one immersed in this state. The binding factors must be greater than the stress that is imposed upon an individual while in the agentic state.
In conclusion, Milgram warns readers about the potency of blind following. If a malicious leader takes over control of a hierarchy, he can instill his desires into his subordinates with little effort. This causes detrimental effects of society. Thus, Milgram unfolds a dark side to human nature and wants readers to be aware of its existence. If a person were to always hold the consequences of his actions above that of an authority, devastating tragedies can be avoided in the future.
Chapter 1: The Dilemma of Obedience:
Stanley Milgram opens up a new line of research by delving into conservative and human philosophies. He develops a shock experiment at Yale university to measure obedience. Milgram garners some ideas from Arendt's experiment of obeying authority. He notes that some binding factors to authority are politeness, a desire to keep a promise, and the awkwardness of withdraw. Also, he notes that one can ignore ethical responsibility in an intermediate act that arises from division of labor.
Chapter 2: Method of Inquiry:
Milgram describes the shock experiment further. A test subject is asked to increase volts from 15-450 in 15 volt increments to punish a learner. The subject is told that the experiment aims to measure how punishment effects learning. The learner is an actor that protests at 150 volts and refuses to answer at 300 volts. At 330, the learner makes no more noise. If the subject second guesses his actions, he looks over to the experimenter who gives the subject four prods to continue before calling off the experiment. At the end, the subject is debriefed and is told that no permanent harm will occur to the learner
Chapter 3: Expected Behavior:
People were asked to predict how many shocks they would want to receive. The vast majority of them chose to receive much less severe shocks than the actual shocks they administered. Initially, the test used 120 people that fell into the category of psychiatrist, college student, or middle-class.
Chapter 4: Closeness of the Victim:
The test was split up into four separate experiments. First, the remote variation contained no vocal protest, only a banging on the wall of the test room. Second, the voice feedback alternative included vocal protests from the learner, but was still behind a wall. Third, proximity was increased by including both audio and visual of the learner. Finally, the touch-proximity test included the fact that the subject was required to physically place the learner's hand on an electric plate before being shocked.
It was discovered that the maximum shock administered decreases as proximity increases. Some potential reasons include emphatic cues, narrowing of cognitive field, reciprocal fields, experience unity of act, incipient group formation (alliance), or acquired behavior dispositions. Upon the conclusion of the test, the experimenters then measured tension and nervousness of the subjects as they administered shocks.
It was discovered that the maximum shock administered decreases as proximity increases. Some potential reasons include emphatic cues, narrowing of cognitive field, reciprocal fields, experience unity of act, incipient group formation (alliance), or acquired behavior dispositions. Upon the conclusion of the test, the experimenters then measured tension and nervousness of the subjects as they administered shocks.
Chapter 5: Individuals Confront Authority:
The first subject, Bruno Batta, participated in experiment four. He issued 450 volts of shock and issued blame to the learner. He claimed that he was just doing his job and even did not see a lesson of the experiment later. Next, a professor of old testament participated in experiment three. He stopped after 150 volts, and viewed the experiment administrator as mere technician throughout the process.
Jack Washington partook in experiment two. He went to 450 volts and justified his action by reaffirming that the experimenter possess the most blame and convinced himself that the shocks are not deadly. Lastly, Morris Braverman continuously laughs throughout the experiment. He viewed himself as helpless, but did in fact, learn a lesson the following year.
Jack Washington partook in experiment two. He went to 450 volts and justified his action by reaffirming that the experimenter possess the most blame and convinced himself that the shocks are not deadly. Lastly, Morris Braverman continuously laughs throughout the experiment. He viewed himself as helpless, but did in fact, learn a lesson the following year.
Chapter 6: Further Variations and Controls:
The experiment was then evolved into a few more differentiating experiments that range from number five to number eleven. First, new room experiment involved the learner admitting that he had a heart problem. Second, the change of personnel involved switching of the learner with dominant and submissive personalities.
Next, the closeness of authority was measured. This involved the authority figure to only call on the phone. Not only did subjects only administer 15 volts instead of the required voltage, but also, only 20% of the test subjects used 450 volts -- compared to 65% in other cases. For experiment eight, women were used as subjects. Experiment nine concentrates on the victim's limited contact. This reduced obedience to 40%. The next experiment involved changing the location from Yale to a more sketchy location. Lastly, subjects were free to choose the shock level.
Next, the closeness of authority was measured. This involved the authority figure to only call on the phone. Not only did subjects only administer 15 volts instead of the required voltage, but also, only 20% of the test subjects used 450 volts -- compared to 65% in other cases. For experiment eight, women were used as subjects. Experiment nine concentrates on the victim's limited contact. This reduced obedience to 40%. The next experiment involved changing the location from Yale to a more sketchy location. Lastly, subjects were free to choose the shock level.
Chapter 7: Individuals Confront Authority II:
First, Fred Prozi participated in experiment five. He went to 450 volts but wanted to stop. His words and actions did not coerce. Second, Karen Dontz participated in experiment 8, and detailed how nurses are able to question a doctor, but never override their authority. Next, Elinor Rosenblum proceeded to 450 volts. Although she was nervous and tense throughout the experiment, she noted that she provides kids with love and kindness. Thus, she is a nice person, but was mindlessly following orders. Gretchen Brandt was from Germany, but remained calm, rational, and disobedient. Lastly, Pasqual Gino of experiment seven, showed concerned about just doing his job and not killing the other person.
Chapter 8: Role Permutations:
The roles of the experiment were permuted between position (prescribes, receives, or administers shocks), status (authority or ordinary person), and action (advocates or opposes shocks. The experiment continued to expand from twelve to sixteen differentiating experiments. For twelve, the learner demands to be socked in which all subjects stopped at the experimenters request. For thirteen, an ordinary man gives the orders to shock but the subjects listened to the experimenter and stopped anyways. For fourteen, the authority was the victim in which an ordinary man was commanding, but the subjects listened to the authority in the chair and stopped. For fifteen, two authorities gave contradicting orders together which caused the subjects to not administer shocks. Lastly, two authorities were used in which one was the victim. Results tended toward the prelimindary results in which a regular person was fully shocked.
Chapter 9: Group Effects:
This chapter focuses around obedience and conformity. Some major differences to note are hierarchy imitation, explicitness, and voluntarism. Experiment seventeen was created in which two peers rebel and the subject proceeded to follow their lead by rebelling. Also, experiment eighteen revolved around a peer administering shocks in which the subject was not giving shocks anymore. The shocks continued to the usual 450 volts.
Chapter 10: Why Obedience? -- An Analysis:
First, the value of survival in a hierarchy was analyzed. Milgram brought a cybernetic viewpoint in which independent entities were brought into a hierarchical organization. He found that the organization typically suppressed individuals Also, Milgram describes the agentic shift where a person begins to see himself as an agent, carrying out other's wishes.
Chapter 11: The Process of Obedience: Applying Analysis to the Experiment:
Milgram notes that in order to move into the agentic state, he must further look at antecedent conditions, consequences, and binding factors. For antecedent, family, institutional setting, rewards, immediate conditions are essential. Some immediate conditions include perception of authority, entry into authority system, coordination of command with function of authority, and overarching ideology. Second, some of the consequences of moving to the agentic state include tuning, redefining the meaning of the situation, loss of responsibility, self image, and commands of the agentic state. Lastly, some binding factors potentially include sequential nature of action, situational obligations, and anxiety.
Chapter 12: Strain and Disobedience:
The chapter begins with a formula for obedience which states that the binding factor must be greater than the difference of strain and strain resolution techniques. Milgram then proceeds to break strain down further, look for buffers for strain (such as distance), and then finally analyzes resolution. Some resolution techniques include denial and subterfuges such as stressing certain words.
Chapter 13: An Alternative Theory: Is Aggression the Key?:
In this short chapter, Milgram simply points out the fact that obedience is magnitudes of orders greater than aggression in causing people to shock victims.
Chapter 14: Problems of Method:
Milgram bolsters his experiment by testing the experiment in other locations, such as Munich which garnered an 85% obedience rate. Second, he generated further study to adhere to the accusation that subjects believed they were not administering shocks. Lastly, he counters the idea that the lab environment is dissimilar to general social life.
Chapter 15: Epilogue:
In the epilogue, an account of a Vietnam soldier was given. Also, the methodologies in which the military enforces obedience is broken down. For instance, the military transitions its soldier from inside to outside. Second, the military removes other authority by practicing in remote locations. Third, the military eliminates the ego. Finally, the military finds ways to justify killing other people to accomplish their needs.
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